Competition for minerals used in advanced energy technologies and high-tech manufacturing is intensifying worldwide. Electric vehicles, solar panels, and batteries depend on rare earth minerals, while lithium, cobalt, and nickel are among the critical inputs being targeted. The global demand for these minerals is expected to double by 2040, increasing pressure on supply access.
Geopolitical competition is also shaping mineral strategies. The ongoing struggle between the United States and China over technological supremacy extends into the rare earth sector. The source of supply and processing capacity has been linked to leverage over global energy, economic, and military landscapes.
China’s role in rare earth production and processing
China has secured a dominant position in both extraction and refining of critical minerals, leaving the United States and its allies vulnerable to supply chain disruptions. Current figures cited include 60% of global rare earth production controlled by China. The same source states China holds 85% of the processing capacity.
The material also links China’s position to seabed mining developments. It says China has made significant investments in seabed exploration and is exerting influence within the International Seabed Authority’s decision-making process. With five seabed mining exploration contracts, China is described as positioned to lead exploitation efforts.
International Seabed Authority governance under UNCLOS
The deep ocean floor is described as a next frontier for extracting critical minerals. Regulation of seabed mining is assigned to the International Seabed Authority (ISA), established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The United States has not ratified UNCLOS and therefore does not have a formal role in shaping governance for seabed mining.
The ISA’s regulatory framework for seabed mining is still under development. Negotiations have not yet addressed key concerns including environmental data requirements, compliance, and enforcement mechanisms. The document states that U.S. leadership would be needed to support regulations that are balanced, scientifically grounded, and aligned with broader economic and environmental goals.
New ISA leadership and calls for a pause
A change in ISA leadership is noted for January 2025, when Brazilian oceanographer Leticia Carvalho becomes Secretary General. The appointment is described as marking a pivotal moment in the development of seabed mining regulations. Under her leadership, governance decisions related to permitting, environmental protection, and equity are expected to be central.
The material also references international positions on timing. It says at least 32 nations have called for a “precautionary pause” on seabed mining to allow time for effective regulations to be developed. In contrast, it states China is poised to move forward with seabed mining activity.
Policy proposals tied to U.S. posture and UNCLOS
The document outlines five policy recommendations for U.S. action on seabed mining governance. One proposal calls for a whole-of-government review by a new U.S. administration to assess the country’s role in the ISA and its broader approach to seabed mining. It specifies an emphasis on aligning economic growth, national security, environmental concerns, and geopolitical strategy, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region.
Another recommendation focuses on marine science and data capabilities. It says U.S. negotiators should use world-leading expertise in marine science and data collection to counter efforts aimed at dominating seabed mining regulations. Sharing expertise with allies and partners is presented as a way to strengthen U.S. positioning in ISA discussions.
A further proposal calls for cross-disciplinary engagement through a roundtable involving ocean science, technology, national security, and environmental law experts. It also calls for bilateral engagements with international allies and coastal developing countries. Another recommendation supports advocating for a precautionary pause until ISA finalizes regulations covering fair and responsible practices.
The final recommendation addresses UNCLOS participation. It states that the United States should reconsider ratifying UNCLOS to enhance influence in global seabed mining governance by securing a permanent seat on the ISA governing council. The proposal frames this as enabling advocacy for U.S. interests and preventing decisions that undermine U.S. goals from being shaped without U.S. input.